Oropos from Roman Times to the Frankish Period
As time passed, during the reign of Roman Emperor Augustus (63 BC – 14 AD), Oropos definitively became a possession of Athens. The rise of Christianity gradually led to the disappearance of the ancient religion. In place of the declining ancient city, a new early Christian and early Byzantine Oropos was built. The abandonment of the coastal area came later, and for many years the present-day Palaiós Oropos (Old Oropos), west of Skala and away from the sea, replaced the ancient city.
From the mid-9th century, Attica followed the upward course of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire—a period of reconstruction and flourishing known as the Macedonian Renaissance. During this era, Oropos prospered particularly as an agricultural hub thanks to its fertile land. New churches began to be built in new architectural styles, and this building activity peaked in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, suggesting long periods of economic prosperity.
This prosperity is evidenced both by the numerous Byzantine churches, the large size of some, the complexity of their architectural styles, and the fact that most have two layers of wall paintings. Oral accounts also confirm it—for instance, when Emperor Basil II the Bulgar Slayer visited Attica in 1018 AD, Oropos reportedly had 2,000 inhabitants. The Byzantine monuments of Oropos are closely linked with the presence of the Frankish element in Greece. Researchers are still discovering new evidence of its influence on Byzantine tradition.
The Frankish and Catalan Period
In the early 12th century, the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes settled in the castles of Sykamino and Oropos. The second had visual contact with both the castle in Sykamino and the one in Fylla, Euboea. Some researchers believe the two castles are much older than the Frankish period, while others connect the castle of Oropos to the existence of an ancient Acropolis, though this remains unproven. The castle of Sykamino appears to have been stronger than that of Oropos. It also seems to have become the administrative center of the region after 1311, when the Catalans occupied the area. This is why the lord of the region resided there—choosing a more remote location away from the highly contested area of Oropos and its fertile plain, which was often a battlefield. Today, little remains of that castle—only faint foundation traces. It stood at the top of the hill northwest of the village.
There is also a circular tower called "Pyrgari" on a hill near the beach of Kalamos, slightly southeast of Agioi Apostoloi. It has a diameter of 3.5 meters and wall thickness of 0.80–0.90 meters. The amount of collapsed material inside and around it shows it wasn’t particularly tall—its original height was probably about 4 meters. It was most likely a watchtower (vigla), probably Frankish from the 13th or 14th century. A few kilometers south, in a similar location, there is another circular tower, slightly smaller.
With the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders divided the Byzantine Empire among themselves. General Boniface received most of what is now Greece. By the end of 1204, he granted the region of Attica and Boeotia to the Burgundian Otto de la Roche. Thus began the Frankish rule in Oropos. In 1209, Pope Innocent III granted the parish of Oropos to the bishopric of Athens (and not to Thebes, which also claimed it). Frankish rule in Attica lasted 255 years and is divided into three periods: the French (1205–1311), the Catalan (1311–1387), and the Florentine period under the Acciaioli family (1387–1460).
In 1255, the Prince of Achaea, William II of Villehardouin, captured and imprisoned in the castle of Sykamino two of the three triarchs of Euboea because they refused to accept him as the third triarch (something he claimed by hereditary right). In 1278, Oropos suffered a pirate raid.
The Catalans, former mercenaries seeking their fortune, invaded Central Greece, captured Boeotia, and moving toward Athens, reached the castles of Sykamino and Oropos. In 1311, at the Battle of Copais, they permanently seized the Frankish Duchy of Athens, which included the fief of Oropos and Sykamino, based at the castle of Sykamino, thus completing their domination. During the Catalan rule (1311–1387), the settlement of the Arvanites began in the villages of Boeotia and Attica. They were employed as mercenary farmers or soldiers by the local rulers.
The castle of Sykamino during the Catalan period, holding both military and administrative power in the area, became a base for the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes, who collaborated with the Catalans. The Hospitallers often had to fend off attacks from bandits coming from the north and east. As a result, any stranger in the region was treated with suspicion. In 1381, Queen Maria of Aragon requested that the Grand Master of the Knights appoint Brother Berengario Vattli as governor of Sykamino.
Late Frankish Period and Venetian Interests
A few years later, Venice, having occupied Euboea, aimed to control the coastal zone of Central Greece opposite Euboea, extending inland up to 5 miles. This zone included the strategic castles of Sykamino and Oropos. Eventually, the Venetians gained control of the fertile plain of Oropos but not its castles, which remained under Catalan control—even after the Catalans were ousted in 1387 by the Florentines. This provoked a reaction from the Venetians, leading to an agreement signed on August 9, 1407: Venice kept control of the productive zone of Oropos, while the Florentines kept the castles, on the condition they would not build any new ones.
The "Italian" period of the Duchy of Athens under the Acciaioli family (1387–1460) is considered perhaps the best period of Frankish rule for the local population. Administrative autonomy was granted, helping relieve the population and boost the economy. The only major misfortune during this time was a deadly infectious disease that significantly reduced the population of Attica and Boeotia. This led to a second wave of Christian Arvanite migration from Northern Epirus into Attica and Boeotia.
This was likely the peak period of Oropos in general and of its Frankish colony in particular, which counted around 50 families (while Oropos itself had 250–300 families). The existence of this Frankish colony is confirmed by archaeological finds mentioned by researcher I. Koumanoudis, most notably a Corinthian capital decorated with foliage and a doorway resembling a Frankish noble's coat of arms.
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Oropos from the Peloponnesian War to the Roman Period
During the Peloponnesian War, in 411 BC, the Boeotians, in collaboration with the Eretrians and the people of Oropos, seized Oropos from the Athenians and re-integrated it into the Boeotian League. This capture played a decisive role in the allies' naval victory that year, as Oropos' harbor was used as a base for the Peloponnesian fleet.
In 402 BC, a civil war broke out in Oropos, during which the pro-Athenian faction prevailed, leading to the exile and persecution of many pro-Boeotians. At that time, a man named Telephos conspired with the Thebans, who occupied Oropos and relocated its inhabitants inland, seven stades away. Telephos’ faction took power. A few years later, around 395 BC, the Thebans officially incorporated Oropos into the Boeotian League.
With the Peace of Antalcidas in 387/386 BC, Oropos regained its autonomy, but shortly afterward, in 378/377 BC, it came back under Athenian control as part of the Second Athenian League. Ten years later, in 367/366 BC, the tyrant of Eretria, Themison, seized the city. The Athenians campaigned against him, but the Thebans, who supported the tyrant, prevailed.
Around 350 BC, Oropos regained full independence, but after the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, Philip II of Macedon handed the city back to the Athenians. The Athenians divided parts of the city’s land among the ten tribes of Attica. This new period of Athenian occupation (338–322 BC) is one of the best-known in the city’s history, primarily due to inscriptions from the Amphiareion (sanctuary).
In 322 BC, following the death of Alexander the Great and the Battle of Crannon, Antipater’s victory forced Athens to surrender and accept a Macedonian garrison, allowing Oropos to regain its autonomy.
However, this autonomy was short-lived. In 313/312 BC, Oropos was taken by Cassander (Antipater’s son), and the same year, Ptolemy incorporated the city into the Boeotian League. In 304 BC, Demetrius Poliorcetes handed the city back to the Athenians, who once again redistributed parts of its territory among the ten Attic tribes.
Around 287 BC, Oropos became a full and equal member of the Boeotian League. This period, lasting until 146 BC, is perhaps the most prosperous in the city's history. However, before the Athenians withdrew—perhaps due to the resurgence of pro-Boeotian sentiment—they expelled the citizens and possibly destroyed the city walls (though an earthquake may also have caused their collapse).
According to I. Gkikas, the people of Oropos felt more Boeotian than Athenian, and in the second half of the 3rd century BC, Oropos' ties with the Boeotian League grew stronger. The region’s geography also facilitated communication with southern Boeotian cities, as well as with Chalkis and Eretria. Between 228–208 BC, Oropos participated in Boeotian festivals like the Ptoia in Akraiphia and the Mouseia in Thespiae.
In 229 BC, the Boeotian League – including Oropos – signed an alliance treaty with the Achaean League. However, by the end of the 3rd century and throughout the 2nd century BC, they entered a period of economic crisis. The crisis hit Athens especially hard, leading the Athenians to attack and plunder Oropos in 156 BC. Consequently, both sides appealed to the Roman Senate to resolve the dispute. Oropos regained its independence, and exiled citizens were allowed to return.
In 146 BC, the Roman consul Mummius destroyed Corinth and subjugated Greece. This marked a turning point for Oropos, as the conqueror dissolved all political federations, including the Boeotian League.
After 146 BC, under Roman rule and Greece’s shifting political landscape, Oropos was no longer politically dependent on other Greek cities. In the 1st century BC, the Amphiareion—and by extension, Oropos—enjoyed special protection and respect from the Romans. The city honored many notable Romans by erecting statues in the sanctuary, such as those of Sulla, his wife Metella, Gaius Scribonius Curio, and other Roman officials.
These good relations with Rome resulted in the Roman Senate—of which the orator Cicero was a member—formally approving in 73 BC Sulla’s decision that granted the Amphiareion the revenues of the entire region and harbors of Oropos.
During the reign of Augustus (around 25 BC), Oropos was definitively annexed to Athens. Although the city gradually declined, the sanctuary continued hosting the Amphiareia games. Dedication inscriptions from the site show that the Athenians remained involved with the sanctuary even into the early Christian centuries. In the 3rd century AD, Oropos was administered by an Athenian with the title of curator, and the priest of Amphiaraus was also Athenian, as the local Oropians had been sidelined. One inscription suggests that even in the 3rd century AD, the Athenians still viewed Oropos as an occupied territory—possibly due to the enduring pro-Boeotian sentiment among its people.
The spread of Christianity led to the gradual disappearance of the old religion, and in place of the decaying ancient city arose early Christian and Byzantine Oropos. This is evidenced by dense archaeological remains (buildings, a basilica), coins, and tombs. Abandonment of the coastal area occurred later, and for many years, what is today known as "Old Oropos" (Palaios Oropos), west of Skala and inland from the sea, replaced the ancient city.
Franks and Turks succeeded the Byzantines in Oropos, and it wasn’t until the mid-19th century that Oropos began to be repopulated, now known as Skala Oropos, serving as the port for the medieval village.
Sources:
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Vlachou B. (2010), Geometric Oropos: The Wheelmade Pottery and Settlement Phases, PhD thesis, Athens
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Gkikas I. (2007), The History of Oropos
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Mazarakis A. A. (2014), "Kome or Polis? The case of Oropos in Attica"
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Mazarakis A. A., Lemos E., Vlachou V. (2020), Excavations in Oropos: Protogeometric and Sub-protogeometric Periods (10th–9th c. BC)
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Parianou E. (2003), The Antiquities of Oropos, Thesis, University of Thessaly
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Petrakos V. (1992), The Amphiareion of Oropos, Kleio Publications
From Homeric Graea to Oropos of the 5th century BC ...
Author I. Gkikakis presents three theories for the origin of the name Graea:
a) At a key point in Oropos, there may have lived an elderly woman (graia), whose home became a stop for travelers (according to Professor G. Koromilas).
b) The antiquity of the region in terms of habitation could have easily given rise to the name "Land of the Old Woman" (Graea). It’s also possible that Graea included both Tanagra and Oropos as a single unified region.
c) It is possible that Graea was one of the 13 lost daughters of the river god Asopos, who according to mythology reside in the celestial realms of the gods. As is known, the daughters of Asopos who were not abducted by Zeus and remained in their homeland gave their names to nearby cities along the river: Tanagra, Thespiae, Plataea, Antiope, Thebes (while Aegina and Salamis were abducted by Zeus and transported to their current locations). This theory was supported by German archaeologists who visited the area of Panagia (post-Byzantine church of the Presentation of the Virgin, in the village of Oropos) in the late 19th century, again around 1929, and during the 1980s. These groups of German archaeologists were convinced that the sanctuary of Heracles and a small theater were located between the Byzantine churches of Saint George and Panagia.
The natural harbor of Oropos was called Delphinion, and to the east was Psaphis, at today’s location called Revythia, in the area of Agioi Apostoloi (Kalamos). Psaphis is mentioned in history after the 6th century BC as an independent Deme of Psaphidos, which was established by the Athenians and organized by the Aiantid tribe. The founding of Psaphidos by the Athenians, after their capture of Oropos, may have aimed to limit Theban claims to the boundaries of Psaphidos.
Whether we're speaking about prehistoric Graea, or pre-Classical and Classical Oropos, we must understand that we are not talking about a single city, small or large, but a cluster of scattered settlements centered around one compact, metropolitan core, where administrative authorities, commerce, craftsmanship, and most of the population were concentrated.
During the Archaic period, the development of sea transport and maritime trade, along with the absence of major floods or tsunamis (such as those of Deucalion in 1796 BC or Santorini in 1520 BC), allowed once again the creation of coastal cities with natural harbors ideal for mooring ships. It also seems that frequent and sometimes devastating floods forced the inhabitants of Oropos to abandon the pre-Classical settlement (today's O.S.K. plot – former Gymnasium) around the early 5th century BC, and move to the site of the Classical-era city, near the delta of the Asopos River in a coastal plain. In the area of the pre-Classical settlement, the western cemetery of the new city developed, and it is believed that the ancient acropolis was located on Lomberdi (or Loumberdi) Hill, where today stands the chapel of Prophet Elias, built in remembrance of the earthquake of July 20, 1938. (South of the chapel, during the occupation, there was a German machine gun bunker.)
It’s worth noting that, as announced by the University of Thessaly, excavations at Skala Oropos (O.S.K. plot) will resume for the final time in summer 2023, as a continuation of excavations held every summer from 1996 to 2011, under the direction of Professor Alexandros Mazarakis Ainian of Classical Archaeology, and under the auspices of the Archaeological Society of Athens.
It is unknown exactly when Oropos transitioned from Eretrian rule to Athenian control. This may have occurred in 506 BC, after Athens’ victorious campaign against the Boeotians, or after the Persian Wars, when Eretria, still weakened from its destruction, was forced to cede it to Athens—or possibly during another conflict.
At this point, I. Gkikakis emphasizes that even during Oropos' peak economic period (6th–2nd century BC), which coincided with the flourishing of nearby cities (Athens, Thebes, and Eretria), Oropos did not appear to form or maintain a military force capable of defending itself—likely due to the overwhelming power of those other cities. A telling example of Oropos' military weakness is the fact that around 150 BC, it sought protection from the Achaean League against the Athenians, offering ten talents to the Spartan general Menalkidas.
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The First Researchers and Travelers of Oropos…
Ancient and modern travelers, while crossing the region of Oropos, provide information about the area's topography, the ruins and inscriptions they encountered, as well as demographic details. The most important ancient travelers were Heraclides, Pausanias, and Strabo, while among the modern ones, who offer more detailed information, were Spon, Wheler, and Leake.
From a text by Heraclides, we learn that there was a route leading from Aphidnae to the Amphiareion:
“From there, to Oropos via Aphidnae and the sanctuary of Zeus Amphiaraos, the journey is almost a day's walk. Yet the abundance of resting places and provisions along the way prevents the travelers from becoming weary.”
In antiquity, one could reach the sanctuary of Amphiaraos and from there head to Oropos via the road to Rhamnous, which followed a coastal route. This route is also described by Strabo:
“After Marathon comes Trikorynthos, then Rhamnous, [where] lies the sanctuary of Nemesis, then Psaphis of the Oropians; and somewhere here lies the once-honored oracle of Amphiaraos.”Even today, there is a road that leads from Athens to the Amphiareion through Rhamnous. From Strabo’s passage, we also learn that Psaphis belonged to Oropos.
In antiquity, the main connection between Oropos and Athens was through the road of Dekeleia, which passed along the eastern side of Mount Parnitha. This direct connection was due to the great importance of Oropos’ port in transporting grain from Euboea to Athens. Thucydides offers relevant information:
“The transport of necessities from Euboea, previously faster by land from Oropos via Dekeleia, had now become more expensive by sea around Cape Sounion.”
Pausanias provides specific details about the sanctuary and cult of Amphiaraos, as well as the distance from Oropos:
“The sanctuary of Amphiaraos lies about twelve stadia from the town.”He also mentions that in his time, the city of Oropos was of little interest:“The city, though by the sea, offers nothing significant to record.”
One and a half kilometers north of the sanctuary of Amphiaraos is today’s Kamaráki-Mandráki bay, identified as the sacred port of Oropos, the Delphinion. The identification of the Delphinion comes from Strabo’s account:
“Next, we should begin the tour of the land from the Euboean coastline adjoining Attica, starting from Oropos and the sacred harbor called Delphinion, opposite ancient Eretria in Euboea, a crossing of sixty stadia. After Delphinion, comes Oropos at twenty stadia; opposite it now lies Eretria, forty stadia away.”
Among foreign travelers, the first to explore the region of Oropos were Spon and Wheler in 1676. They reported that they were unable to cross the Asopos River due to its strong currents, so they walked along its bank until they reached Oropos, which they describe as a large town with 200 houses.
The first topographic description of Oropos is attributed to E. Dodwell (1767–1832) and Sir W. Gell (1777–1836), who arrived in Oropos in 1805 and documented various scattered ancient remains.
In 1806, William Martin Leake (1777–1860) visited the area and described in detail the route he took from mountainous Kalamos to Skala Oropos via the Amphiareion. Despite some minor errors (such as misidentifying Skala with the site of the Apostles), he was among the first to highlight an inconsistency between the location of Old Oropos (which he identified with the ancient city, mainly based on the name) and sources placing ancient Oropos in the coastal area.
Leake referred to Skala Oropos as Apostoloi after a ruined church he found there. In the sea, he saw the remains of an ancient wall, which he believed to be an ancient harbor pier. On the acropolis of Oropos, he identified building remains which he thought belonged to a small defensive fort. In a ruined chapel nearby, he discovered a funerary inscription bearing the name “Timandrides,” and near the shore, he found squared stones. At the time of his visit, the village of Oropos was in decline, and the population had moved toward Skala. Based on several ruined churches, Leake concluded that the village had flourished during medieval times. To the southeast of Oropos, at the base of a hill, he observed ancient tombs containing grave goods such as spearheads, bronze lance tips, and scrapers.
A detailed reference to the topography of Oropia and the sanctuary of Amphiaraos is found in the work of Heinrich Nicolaus Ulrichs (1807–1843), who visited the area several times between 1832 and 1842. Smaller references to Oropos are made by travelers of the first half of the 19th century.
However, a major turning point came around the mid-19th century, when systematic archaeological research began, aiming to locate the sanctuary of Amphiaraos. The successful identification of the sanctuary was due to inscriptions published successively by Rangavis and Pittakis, and studies by Preller and Girard. Systematic excavations were begun by the Archaeological Society in 1884.
Outside of the Amphiareion itself, the wider area of Oropia remained archaeologically unexplored until the mid-1970s. Excavations from 1974 to the present, conducted by the 2nd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, have enriched our understanding of Oropos' prehistory and history. Settlements from the Geometric period have been located in two areas of the modern summer resort: Nea Palatia (OTE plot) and Skala (OSK plot). These areas were excavated between 1983 and 1987 under the direction of Aliki Dragona, when V. Petrakos was the Ephor of Attica. Dragona's premature death prevented the publication of the excavation results and the completion of work on the western boundary of the Skala settlement, on the OSK plot.
The excavation of the OSK plot began as a salvage excavation on a site designated for new school buildings, but it soon became systematic due to the significance of the finds. About ten years after the work was halted, the site was re-investigated starting in 1996, under the direction of Professor Alexandros Mazarakis Ainian and with the sponsorship of the Archaeological Society of Athens.
The major excavations from 1985–1987 and 1996–2003 revealed a large settlement from the Early Historical period (late 10th to early 5th century BC), with dozens of apsidal and circular buildings (the largest and best-preserved such residential complex from the 8th and 7th centuries BC), as well as metalworking workshops, cultic and public buildings, and burials from the same era.
The numerous and important finds confirm the close cultural ties of the Oropians with nearby regions, especially Euboea, the Eastern Mediterranean, and Southern Italy. Of particular national and European significance is Oropos’ connection with the West (Magna Graecia and Sicily). Based on both literary sources (Thucydides, Aristotle, Strabo) and archaeological evidence, pre-Classical Oropos is now confidently identified with the Homeric Graia (Iliad B, 498). According to modern scholars, it appears that the Graians were the first to travel west in search of metals and took part in founding the earliest Euboean colonies in the West. It is even hypothesized that the Graians were the first Greeks to encounter the indigenous inhabitants of the Italian Peninsula—and that all Greeks later came to be known in the West as Graii, Greci. Geological research and lab analyses suggest that the site was permanently abandoned in the early 5th century BC after devastating floods.
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A Few Words About Today…
The current Municipality of Oropos was created in 2010 through the merger of the municipalities of Avlona, Kalamos, Oropion, and the communities of Afidnes, Kapandriti, Malakasa, Markopoulo, Polydendri, and Sykamino under the "Kallikratis" administrative reform. It covers the whole of Northeastern Attica, stretching from the Euboean Gulf to the slopes of Parnitha and from Marathon Lake to the Attica–Boeotia border.
It is the largest municipality in terms of area in East Attica and one of the most merged local government units in Greece. It borders Tanagra (west), Phylis, Acharnes, Dionysos (south), Marathon (east), and the southern Euboean Gulf (north). Due to its proximity to the Oinofyta–Schimatari industrial zone and greater Athens basin, the area has shifted in recent years from a vacation retreat (1960s–70s) to a permanent residential zone.
Its strategic location includes:
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The Athens–Lamia national highway (E75)
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Three railway stations in Afidnes, Malakasa-Sfendali, and Avlona serving trains to Chalkida
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Upgraded electrified lines, with future suburban (Proastiakos) rail integration
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A port at Skala Oropos, with regular ferry links to Eretria
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Regular KTEL bus services to Athens, covering Oropos and Dilesi
The region features coastlines, plains, and semi-mountainous terrain. Flat agricultural plains lie in the north and northwest (Avlona, Sykamino, Oropos), while gentle hills in the southwest (Afidnes, Kapandriti, Polydendri) reach Parnitha’s foothills. Some of the few remaining forests survive here, vital for protecting Athens from northern winds.
Key peaks include Armeniá (759 m), Skími (933 m), Beletsi (ancient Phelleus 840 m), Lykaina (718 m), and Mavrenora (640 m). Numerous streams feed into the region, the primary one being the Asopos River, flowing from Boeotia to the South Euboean Gulf.
The northern part of Marathon Lake also lies within the municipality—Athens’s water source—along with the smaller Beletsi lake near Afidnes. The climate is a dry Mediterranean: coldest in January–February, hottest in July–August, with 68% average relative humidity, 400 mm annual rainfall at sea level (decreasing by 70 mm/100 m elevation), average annual temperatures of 9.5 °C (min) and 19 °C (mean), rare frost, and over 2,900 sunshine hours—variations due to sea proximity and altitude.
Though Oropos makes up about 22% of East Attica’s area, it holds 37% of its arable land, 32% of agricultural zones, 33% forest, and 76% of freshwater bodies. With only 2% urban land cover, it retains a rural character and significant environmental capital ripe for future development.
However, population growth has led to environmental pressures: chiefly water pollution (in groundwater and coastal zones) and secondarily soil pollution from solid waste. Water contamination results partly from lacking sewage infrastructure and biological wastewater treatment, and partly from industrial effluents in the Asopos River. Minor stormwater management projects are funded by the Attica Region, and local streams are regularly cleaned by the municipality.
Infrastructure varies: a municipal water network (fed by wells) delivers good quality water, though summer pressure drops occur due to higher demand and terrain. Pipelines require regular maintenance. Pavement systems—urban and local—are in good condition, maintained annually, though expansion is still needed in unplanned settlements. Inter-municipal roads are adequate except along the coastal link to Marathon.
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Welcome to Oropos History…
The region of Oropos—with its natural beauty and a wealth of archaeological, ecological, historical, religious, and architectural sites—offers significant potential for future development. Such prospects could help pull the area out of the deadlock it has fallen into due to consecutive crises in recent years.
However, before pursuing that path, one must not overlook its connection to itself—namely its history—which provides the self-awareness that every place needs to build its unique identity, tell its distinctive story, and strengthen its unique comparative advantages.
Oropos History aspires to become a hub for the history of the Municipality of Oropos, without neglecting the present and future of our Municipality. Striving to preserve objectivity and impartiality, Oropos History will rely on scientific sources in order to provide its readers with accurate and well-documented information about the historical topics we will tackle.
The sources upon which we base our articles are numerous and varied: an initial count shows more than 70 books and scientific studies about the region, as well as a wealth of online materials from credible institutions and organizations.
With Oropos History, we aim to add a small but meaningful contribution to the necessary public discourse around the history of our homeland. If, through reading each of our articles, this discourse continues with richer and better-informed arguments, that will be the greatest reward for us…
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